VITAMINS | MINERALS

 VITAMINS

Vitamins are one of the nutrients, which are required in the body for different functions.

They are total seven nutrients, which are Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, Water and Roughage. Lacking one of the nutrients causes a deficiency disease in the body. The bottom line is that vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

They are total of six types of vitamins and these are: 

1.    Vitamin A

Overview

In the case of vitamin A, the eyes have it. The essential nutrient vitamin A, or retinol, plays a vital role in vision, reproduction and it helps healthy cells create accurate copies of them during cell division. In this article, we will discuss the importance of vitamin A supplements in our diet and sources for this vital nutrient. Here is a preview:

 What Is Vitamin A?

As indicated by its position at the head of the vitamin alphabet, vitamin A was the first vitamin discovered. In the early 1900s, researchers recognized that a certain substance in animal fats and fish oils was necessary for the growth of young animals. Scientists originally called the substance fat-soluble A to signify its presence in animal fats. Later, they renamed it vitamin A.

The most clearly defined role of vitamin A is the part it plays in vision, especially the ability to see in the dark. Metabolites of the vitamin combine with certain proteins to make visual pigments that help the eye adjust from bright to dim light. This process, however, uses up a lot of vitamin A. If it is not replaced, night blindness can result.

Moreover, a deficiency of vitamin A dries out the transparent coating of the eye (the cornea) and the membrane over the whites of the eye (the conjunctiva). If not treated, this condition, called xerophthalmia, causes irreversible damage and blindness. Vitamin A deficiency is a major cause of blindness in the world.

Vitamin A is also important for normal growth and reproduction -- especially proper development of bones and teeth. Animal studies show that vitamin A supplement is essential for normal sperm formation, for growth of a healthy fetus, and perhaps for the synthesis of steroid hormones.

Another important, but misunderstood, role of vitamin A supplement involves preserving healthy skin inside and out. Taking extra vitamin A supplement will not make your sagging skin suddenly beautiful, but a deficiency of it will cause major skin problems. Furthermore, an adequate vitamin A supplement intake ensures healthy mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. In this way, vitamin A supplement helps the body resist infection. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Vitamin A is also being studied for its function in creating normal copies of each of our cells as they reproduce. Cells that do not differentiate into specific cell types have a greater chance of undergoing pre-cancerous changes than normally differentiated cells.  Current studies suggest that adequate retinol levels can help prevent cancers of the liver, prostate and possibly the colon.

As we have just learned, vitamin A is essential for healthy eyesight. Keep reading to learn more about vitamin A supplement's therapeutic benefits.

Benefits of Vitamin A

In addition to treating deficiency syndromes, vitamin A has several potential preventive and therapeutic uses. Vitamin A is important "medicine" for the immune system. It keeps skin and mucous membrane cells healthy. When membranes are healthy, they stay moist and resistant to cell damage. The moistness inhibits bacteria and viruses from "putting down stakes" and starting infectious diseases.

Healthy cells are also resistant to cancers. Vitamin A fights cancer by inhibiting the production of DNA in cancerous cells. It slows down tumor growth in established cancers and may keep leukemia cells from dividing.

This vitamin is particularly helpful in diseases caused by viruses. Measles, respiratory viruses, and even human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes AIDS, may retreat in the presence of vitamin A supplement. Blood levels of vitamin A are often low in people with viral illnesses. After receiving additional amounts of this vitamin, the body is able to mount its defenses, often resulting in a quicker recovery. However, vitamin A can also increase the risk of infections, according to the findings of a recent study. In HIV infection, for instance, preformed vitamin A supplement may also encourage HIV to replicate, so limiting the intake of vitamin A supplement is the best bet for these patients.

Stroke victims who have high levels of vitamin A in their systems are less likely to die or suffer disabilities from the stroke. Eating plenty of fruits and vegetables is a good defense against stroke and its complications.

Topical application of vitamin A supplement helps relieve dry-eye disorder. When tear production and lubrication stop, the resulting dry eyes can be extremely uncomfortable. Many treatment avenues are often disappointing, with the exception of vitamin A supplement eye drops. Used clinically, these drops improve cell function and moistness returns to the eyes. Companies sell vitamin A supplement in many chain drugstores throughout the U.S. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Vitamin A taken orally and applied topically looks promising in preventing and possibly even treating skin cancers. It may be helpful, too, in lightening liver spots, those dark spots that often appear on aging skin. Topical application used in one study significantly lightened liver spots within one month.

Vitamin A derivatives are used to treat skin disorders. Isotretinoin acne medicine is an oral medication used for severe cystic acne. Because of the possibility of such serious side effects as liver damage and elevated blood triglycerides, a doctor must closely monitor treatment with this medication. Any woman capable of becoming pregnant needs to use reliable birth control when taking this medicine because it can cause spontaneous abortion or serious birth defects. Pregnant women must avoid it and other sources of high-dose vitamin A supplement.

Tretinoin is a topical medication primarily used for acne, with less potential for serious side effects than oral isotretinoin. It treats baldness when prescribed along with minoxidil. It also may reduce the appearance of wrinkles and reverse the effects of sun damage on the skin. Another vitamin A derivative, etretinate, may treat psoriasis.

Experts agree that the best way to get essential nutrients is through diet. Keep reading to learn about foods that contain vitamin A.

Foods That Contain Vitamin A

Both animal and plant foods have vitamin A activity. Retinol, also called preformed vitamin A, is the natural form found in animals. Carotenoids, found in plants, are compounds that the body can convert to vitamin A.

Liver is the single best food source of vitamin A. However, many experts recommend eating liver only once or twice a month because of the toxic substances it can contain. Environmental pollutants tend to congregate in an animal's liver. Egg yolk, cheese, whole milk, butter, fortified skim milk, and margarine are also good sources of vitamin A. Be careful, though, as all these foods -- except fortified skim milk -- are also high in total fat and saturated fat, and all except margarine are high in cholesterol. Red palm oil, used for cooking in many tropical countries and fish liver oils taken as supplements are also rich in vitamin A. One tablespoon of cod liver oil contains more than 12,000 international units (IU), more than twice the daily recommended intake for adults.

Because of the high fat and cholesterol content of most vitamin A-rich foods, as well as the potential for overdosing, it is recommended that you do not overeat from these sources just to fulfill your need for vitamin A. (Recent studies suggest that vitamin A, as retinol, could be toxic at much lower doses than previously thought.) Currently, Americans get about half their vitamin A as retinol from animal sources and half as carotenoids from plant sources.

This chart will help you find foods that are a good source of vitamin A.

Vitamin A deficiency can cause a variety of health problems, including increased susceptibility to infectious diseases. Go to the next page to learn more about vitamin A deficiency and recommended daily intake.

Vitamin A Deficiency

Vitamin A deficiency is common in the United States among low-income groups. Children are especially vulnerable because they are still growing rapidly. People who eat very-low-fat diets and who limit their consumption of liver, dairy foods and dark green vegetables, and those who experience fat malabsorption from conditions like celiac disease or infectious hepatitis can also become deficient in vitamin A. A zinc deficiency can also trigger a vitamin A deficiency by making it difficult to use the body's own stores of the vitamin.

An early warning sign of vitamin A deficiency is the inability to see well in the dark, a condition called night blindness. If the deficiency is not corrected, the outer layers of the eyes become dry, thickened, and cloudy, eventually leading to blindness if left untreated.

Vitamin A deficiency also causes dry and rough skin, making it take on a kind of "goose flesh" appearance. In addition, one can become more susceptible to infectious diseases. That is because a lack of vitamin A damages the lining of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, so they cannot act as effective barriers against bacteria. Infections of the vagina and the urinary tract are also more likely.

Treatment for children with xerophthalmia starts with large doses of vitamin A supplement, decreasing to smaller amounts after a few days. Blindness can be averted if treatment is started before too much eye damage has occurred.

Diseases such as obstructive jaundice or cystic fibrosis cause poor absorption of dietary fat and the fat-soluble vitamins. So even if people with these diseases consume adequate vitamin A supplement, they may still develop a deficiency because of poor absorption. To overcome this obstacle, patients can take large amounts of a water-soluble form of vitamin A supplement.

A disease accompanied by prolonged fever, such as infectious hepatitis or rheumatic fever, can rapidly deplete the liver's reserves of vitamin A. As part of the treatment, a doctor may prescribe this vitamin in amounts greater than the RDA to prevent deficiency. Zinc is needed to transport vitamin A, so zinc may also be recommended low levels. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits!

Dietary Requirements

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin A supplement is 900 retinol equivalents (RE) for men and 700 RE for women. Retinol equivalents are the preferred measure for vitamin A supplement, because this method takes into account both forms of the vitamin -- retinol and carotenoids. One RE is equal to 3.33 international units (IU) of retinol or 10 IU of beta-carotene or 12 IU of mixed carotenes. Assuming you get the vitamin from both sources, the RDAs are equivalent to about 5,000 IU for men and 4,000 IU for women.

It is not necessary to obtain the RDA amount for vitamin A supplement each day. Because vitamin A supplement is not soluble in water, you do not excrete excess amounts of the vitamin. The liver stores vitamin A and the body can tap into the reserves whenever dietary intake is too low. For most adults it takes months to deplete stored amounts. As long as you have a well-balanced diet that includes milk and yellow-orange and green vegetables, your overall intake should be sufficient to provide the vitamin A supplement your body needs. Strict vegetarians, such as vegans, can obtain sufficient vitamin A supplement if they eat a lot of pigmented vegetables.

If you choose to take vitamin A supplements to get your daily requirements, make sure you do not overdo it -- too much vitamin A supplement can be toxic. Keep reading to learn more about vitamin A supplements.

Vitamin A Supplements

How much is enough? For general health, limit vitamin A supplementation to 5,000 IU (1,000 RE) for men and 2,500 IU (500 RE) for women. A high dose of up to 50,000 IU (10,000 RE) for one or two days only to treat a viral infection is acceptable. Pregnant women should use carotenes instead.

When shopping for carotene supplements, look for "mixed carotenoids" so that you get some of the other helpful carotenes besides just beta-carotene. The best source of these supplements is palm oil. You do not need to worry about fat intake, because the carotenes are extracted from the palm oil. Carotenes from the algae D. Salina are second best. Avoid synthetic preparations. A daily amount of 25,000 IU is recommended for general health purposes.

Do not overdo it. Large amounts of vitamin A supplement are clearly toxic. One massive dose or large doses taken over an extended period of time can cause hair loss, joint pain, nausea, bone and muscle soreness, headaches, dry and flaky skin, diarrhea, rashes, enlarged liver and spleen, cessation of menstruation, and stunted growth.

Two recent studies indicate that toxicity can occur at levels far lower than previously thought. Researchers report that daily doses exceeding 25,000 IU over a period of time have caused lasting liver damage. And a recent study of pregnant women found a fivefold increase in the risk of having a baby with a birth defect for women taking more than 10,000 IU compared with those getting less than 5,000 IU.

Excessive intake of retinol can be detrimental to your health, specifically your heart and bone health. One clinical trial showed that people who took 25,000 IU of vitamin A supplement per day for 3-4 years saw their triglycerides and total cholesterol increase while their good cholesterol (HDL) decreased. Both animal and human studies show that excessive vitamin A supplement intake can accelerate bone loss and inhibit formation of new bone, increasing the risk of osteoporosis. In humans, small studies have found these effects at about 85,000–125,000 IU per day. Therefore, you should limit retinol supplementation to 500-600 RE per day if you are at risk for either cardiovascular disease or osteoporosis.  Once again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

In a few reported instances, vitamin A toxicity has occurred after eating large amounts of liver. (Polar bear liver is especially high in vitamin A; it contains as much as 560,000 IU (169,697 RE) per ounce!) Because the liver stores vitamin A, eating large amounts daily is not wise.

Carotenoids can also be a good source of vitamin A supplement. Keep reading to learn more about these colorful plant pigments.

Carotenoids

Carotenoids, the colorful plant pigments some of which the body can turn into vitamin A, are powerful antioxidants that can help prevent some forms of cancer and heart disease, and act to enhance your immune response to infections.

These precursors to vitamin A are sometimes called provitamin A. Bright-orange beta-carotene is the most important carotenoid for adequate vitamin A intake because it yields more vitamin A than alpha- or gamma-carotene.

Some carotenoids, such as lycopene, do not convert to vitamin A at all. Lycopene, the orange-red pigment found in tomatoes and watermelon, is still of value, however, because it is an antioxidant even more potent than beta-carotene. The other carotenoids are also valuable antioxidants. Antioxidants help the body reduce the inflammatory action of singlet or free-radical oxygen. Oxygen atoms like to combine into pairs. Singlet oxygen atoms are unstable and interact with the lipids found in cell walls causing inflammation and damage. Sometimes, your own body uses these free radicals to fight infections and abnormal cells. Most of the time, these free radicals cause inflammation and damage to cells, such as those that line your arteries.

Orange and yellow fruits and vegetables have high vitamin A activity because of the carotenoids they contain. Generally, the deeper the color of the fruit or vegetable is an indication of a higher concentration of carotenoids. Carrots, for example, are especially good sources of beta-carotene. Green, leafy vegetables such as spinach, asparagus, and broccoli also contain large amounts of carotenoids, but their intense green pigment, courtesy of chlorophyll, masks the tell-tale orange-yellow color. (See the table on page 194 for a list of good food sources of vitamin A.)

Most other carotenoids, such as alpha- and gamma-carotene, plus cryptoxanthin and beta-zeacarotene have less vitamin A activity than beta-carotene, but offer ample cancer prevention. Some carotenoids, such as lycopene, zeaxanthin, lutein, capsanthin, and canthaxanthin are not converted into vitamin A in the body. But again, they are powerful cancer fighters, prevalent in fruits and vegetables. There is abundant evidence that lycopene in particular helps reduce the risk for prostate cancer.

Carotenes are valuable preventive medicines, too. Research shows that people who eat a lot of foods rich in beta-carotene -- the carotenoid with the greatest vitamin A value -- are less likely to develop lung cancer. Even among smokers, lung cancer is less likely to occur in those people who eat a diet that includes lots of vegetables and fruits containing beta-carotene. Taking a beta-carotene supplement in pill form does not always have the same effect, however. Perhaps this is because in these foods there may be other substances that offer protection as well. In three studies involving 69,000 participants, many of them smokers, beta-carotene supplements increased the rate of lung cancer. Lutein/zeaxanthin, lycopene and alpha-carotene show evidence of being significantly more protective against lung and some other cancers.


Deficiency

There is no known carotenoid deficiency state. Deficiency symptoms are linked to vitamin A deficiency instead. While carotenoids can help prevent vitamin A deficiency, people who have impaired thyroid function are less able to convert betacarotene into vitamin A (retinol).

Contraindications

Taking more than 100,000 IU betacarotene per day sometimes gives the skin a yellow-orange hue, which may look like jaundice but is not harmful. People taking beta-carotene for long periods of time should also supplement with vitamin E, as beta-carotene may reduce vitamin E levels. Supplementing with doses of over 50,000 IU of beta carotene may also decrease blood levels of lutein, lycopene and other carotenoids.

Vitamin A and carotenoids are vital to your overall health, especially for good eyesight. Just be sure you are getting appropriate amounts of this nutrient and safeguard against overdose to avoid toxic levels, and vitamin A will work to keep your body running smoothly.

http:// health. howstuffworks. com/ vitamin-a. htm

2.    VITAMIN B

Thiamine or thiamin, also known as vitamin B1, is a colorless compound with chemical formula C12H17N4OS. It is soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. Thiamine decomposes if heated. Its chemical structure contains a pyrimidine ring and a thiazole ring.

Thiamine was first discovered in 1910 by Umetaro Suzuki in Japan when researching how rice bran cured patients of Beriberi. He named it aberic acid. He did not determine its chemical composition, nor was that it an amine. It was first crystallized by Jansen and Donath in 1926 (they named it aneurin, for antineuritic vitamin). Its chemical composition and synthesis was finally reported by Robert R. Williams in 1935. He also coined the name for it, thiamin. There are three known thiamine phosphate derivatives: thiamine monophosphate (ThMP), thiamine diphosphate (ThDP) and thiamine triphosphate (ThTP).

Thiamine diphosphate (ThDP) or thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) is a coenzyme for pyruvate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase, and transketolase. The first two of these enzymes function in the metabolism of carbohydrates, while transketolase functions in the pentose phosphate pathway to synthesize NADPH and the pentose sugars deoxyribose and ribose. In general, TPP functions as a cofactor for enzymes that catalyze the dehydrogenation (decarboxylation and subsequent conjugation to Coenzyme A) of alpha-keto acids. TPP is synthesized by the enzyme thiamine pyrophosphokinase, which requires free thiamine, magnesium, and adenosine triphosphate.

Thiamine triphosphate (ThTP) was long considered a specific neuroactive form of thiamine. However, recently it was shown that ThTP exists in bacteria, fungi, plants and animals suggesting a much more general cellular role. In particular in E. coli it seems to play a role in response to amino acid starvation.

Nutrition

Also known as vitamin B1, thiamine plays an important role in helping the body convert carbohydrates and fat into energy. It is essential for normal growth and development and helps to maintain proper functioning of the heart and the nervous and digestive systems. Thiamine is water-soluble and cannot be stored in the body; however, once absorbed, the vitamin is concentrated in muscle tissue.

Good sources

Thiamine is found naturally in the following foods, each of which contains at least 0.1mg of the vitamin per 28-100g (1-3.5oz): Green peas, Spinach, Liver, Beef, Pork, Navy beans, Nuts, Pinto beans, Soybeans, Whole-grain and Enriched Cereals, Breads, Yeast, and Legumes.

Deficiency

Systemic thiamine deficiency can lead to myriad problems including neurodegeneration, wasting, and death. A lack of thiamine can be caused by malnutrition, alcoholism, a diet high in thiaminase-rich foods (raw freshwater fish, raw shellfish, ferns) and/or foods high in anti-thiamine factors (tea, coffee, betel nuts)

Well-known syndromes caused by thiamine deficiency include Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome and beriberi, diseases also common with chronic alcoholism. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Diagnostic Testing for B1 Deficiency

A positive diagnosis test for Thiamine deficiency can be ascertained by measuring the activity of transketolase in erythrocyte. Thiamine can also be measured directly in whole blood following the conversion of thiamine to a fluorescent thiochrome derivative. The aleurone layer of unpolished rice is a rich source.

Overdose

The only known cases of thiamine overdose occurred with thiamine injections. Thiamine injection may result in anaphylactic reactions.

http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/ Thiamine

3.    VITAMIN C

Definition:

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin that is necessary for normal growth and development.

Alternative Names

Ascorbic acid

Function

Vitamin C promotes healthy teeth and gums, helps in the absorption of iron, aids in the maintenance of normal connective tissue, and promotes wound healing. It also helps the body's immune system.  Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Recommendations

Recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) are defined as the levels of intake of essential nutrients that based on scientific knowledge, the Food and Nutrition Board judges to be adequate to meet the known nutrient needs of practically all healthy persons.

The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.

Vitamin C should be consumed every day, since it is not a fat-soluble vitamin and cannot be stored for later use.

Specific recommendations for each vitamin depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy). The U.S. Department of Agriculture offers a PDF file that lists these recommendations.

There has been much debate regarding the use of vitamin C supplement in cancer and heart disease prevention. Although the evidence is mixed regarding a definitive benefit of vitamin C supplement in this regard, it is still encouraged that individuals maintain adequate intake. On the other hand, the majority of current evidence does not support vitamin C supplement's role in the prevention or treatment of the common cold.

Vitamin C is an antioxidant, which means that it quenches free radicals that can damage organs, tissues, and cells. Free radicals are believed to be one of the causes of the degenerative changes seen with aging, but it is not yet known whether consumption of additional antioxidants like vitamin C supplement can help. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Side Effects

A deficiency of vitamin C causes the disease scurvy, which is rare in the United States.

Toxicity does not normally occur, since vitamin C supplement is water-soluble and is regularly excreted by the body. Recent studies have shown, however, that excessive doses of vitamin C supplement (many times more than the recommended amount) can lead to toxicity.

The most common manifestations of vitamin C toxicity are kidney stones, and in very rare circumstances, anemia (caused by interference with vitamin B12 absorption).

Diarrhea is also a possible but uncommon symptom associated with massively increased intake of vitamin C supplement.

http: //adam .about. com/ encyclopedia/ 002404sid. htm

Food Sources of Vitamin C

Even if your kids do not eat brussel sprouts or cabbage, they likely do eat citrus fruits, like oranges, which are high in Vitamin C. Unlike most vitamins and minerals, which can be a struggle to provide adequate amounts if your child is a picky eater, it is usually pretty easy to get enough Vitamin C. Consider that a single, medium orange can provide all of the Vitamin C that most children need for the entire day.

Foods that are good sources of Vitamin C include¹:

• Red peppers
• Papayas
• Green peppers
• Broccoli
• Strawberries
• Brussels Sprouts
• Citrus fruits (oranges, grape fruit, etc.)
• Kiwi Fruit
• Tomato Soup
• Kellogg's Product 19 cereal
• General Mill's Whole Grain Total cereal
• Cantaloupe
• Mangos
• Cauliflower
• Cabbage
• Raspberries
• Spinach
• Honeydew Melons
• Potatoes
• Tomatoes
• Watermelon

Fruit Juice and Vitamin C

Even if your kids do not eat any of the fruits and vegetables that are good sources of Vitamin C mentioned above, since most fruit juices, including Orange Juice, that kids drinks have 100% Vitamin C in each serving, if your child drinks juice, he is likely getting plenty of Vitamin C.

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4.    VITAMIN D

Description

Vitamin D, also known as calciferol, is essential for strong teeth and bones. There are two major forms of vitamin D: D₂ or ergocalciferol and D₃ or cholecarciferol. Vitamin D can be synthesized by the body in the presence of sunlight, as opposed to being required in the diet. It is the only vitamin whose biologically active formula is a hormone. It is fat-soluble, and regulates the body's absorption and use of the minerals calcium and phosphorus. Vitamin D is important not only to the maintenance of proper bone density, but to the many calcium-driven neurologic and cellular functions, as well as normal growth and development. It also assists the immune system by playing a part in the production of a type of white blood cell called the monocyte. White blood cells are infection fighters. There are many chemical forms of vitamin D, which have varying amounts of biological activity.

General Use

The needed amount of vitamin D supplement is expressed as an Adequate Intake (AI) rather than an Required Daily Amount (RDA). This is due to a difficulty in quantifying the amount of the vitamin that is produced by the body with exposure to sunlight. Instead, the AI estimates the amount needed to be eaten in order to maintain normal function. It is measured in International Units (IU) and there are 40 IU in a microgram (mcg). The AI for vitamin D supplement in the form of cholecarciferol or ergocalciferol for everyone under 50 years of age, including pregnant and lactating women, is 200 IU. It goes up to 400 IU for people 51-70 years old and to 600 IU for those over age 70. A slightly higher dose of vitamin D supplement, even as little as a total of 700 IU for those over age 65, can significantly reduce age-related fractures when taken with 500 mg of calcium per day. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Natural Sources

Exposure to sunlight is the primary method of obtaining vitamin D. In clear summer weather, approximately ten minutes per day in the sun will produce adequate amounts, even when only the face is exposed. In the winter, it may require as much as two hours. Many people do not get that amount of winter exposure, but are able to utilize the vitamin that was stored during extra time in the sun over the summer. Sunscreen blocks the ability of the sun to produce vitamin D, but should be applied as soon as the minimum exposure requirement has passed, in order to reduce the risk of skin cancer. The chemical 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin is converted to vitamin D₃ by sunlight. Further processing by first the liver, and then the kidneys, makes D₃ more biologically active. Since it is fat-soluble, extra can be stored in the liver and fatty tissues for future use. Vitamin D is naturally found in fish liver oils, butter, eggs, and fortified milk and cereals in the form of vitamin D₂. Milk products are the main dietary source for most people. Other dairy products are not a good supply of vitamin D, as they are made from unfortified milk. Plant foods are also poor sources of vitamin D.

Supplemental Sources

Most oral supplements of vitamin D are in the form of ergocalciferol. It is also available in topical (calcitriol or calcipotriene), intravenous (calcitriol), or intramuscular (ergocalciferol) formulations. Products designed to be given by other than oral routes are by prescription only. As with all supplements, vitamin D should be stored in a cool, dry place, away from direct light, and out of the reach of children.

Deficiency

In adults, a mild deficiency of vitamin D may be manifested as loss of appetite and weight, difficulty sleeping, and diarrhea. A more major deficiency causes osteomalacia and muscle spasm. The bones become soft, fragile, and painful as a result of the calcium depletion. This is due to an inability to properly absorb and utilize calcium in the absence of vitamin D. In children, a severe lack of vitamin D causes rickets. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Risk Factors for Deficiency

The most likely cause of vitamin D deficiency is inadequate exposure to sunlight. This can occur with people who don't go outside much, those in areas of the world where pollution blocks ultraviolet (UV) light or where the weather prohibits spending much time outdoors. Glass filters out the rays necessary for vitamin formation, as does sunscreen. Those with dark skin may also absorb smaller amounts of the UV light necessary to effect conversion of the vitamin. In climates far to the north, the angle of the sun in winter may not allow adequate UV penetration of the atmosphere to create D₃ Getting enough sun in the summer, and a good dietary source, should supply enough vitamin D to last through the winter. Vegans or anyone who does not consume dairy products in combination with not getting much sun is also at higher risk, as are the elderly, who have a decreased ability to synthesize vitamin D.

Precautions

The body will not make too much vitamin D from overexposure to sun, but since vitamin D is stored in fat, toxicity from supplemental overdose is a possibility. Symptoms are largely those of hypercalcemia, and may include high blood pressure, headache, weakness, fatigue, and heart arrhythmia, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, dizziness, irritability, seizures, kidney damage, poor growth, premature hardening of the arteries, and pain in the abdomen, muscles, and bones. If the toxicity progresses, itching and symptoms referable to renal disease may develop, such as thirst, frequent urination, proteinuria, and inability to concentrate urine. Overdoses during pregnancy may cause fetal abnormalities. Problems in the infant can include tetany, seizures, heart valve malformation, retinal damage, growth suppression, and mental retardation. Pregnant women should not exceed the AI, and all others over one year of age should not exceed a daily dose of 2000 IU. Infants should not exceed 1000 IU. These upper level doses should not be used except under the advice and supervision of a healthcare provider due to the potential for toxicity.

Individuals with hypercalcemia, sarcoidosis, or hypoparathyroidism should not use supplemental calciferol. Those with kidney disease, arteriosclerosis, or heart disease should use ergocalciferol only with extreme caution and medical guidance.

Side Effects

Minor side effects may include poor appetite, constipation, dry mouth, increased thirst, metallic taste, or fatigue. Other reactions, which should prompt a call to a healthcare provider, can include headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or confusion. http: //www. answers. com/ Vitamin%2 0D#Medical

5.    VITAMIN E

Definition

Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin that acts as an antioxidant

.

Alternative Names

Deficiency - vitamin E; Tocopherol

Function

Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects body tissue from damage caused by unstable substances called free radicals. Free radicals can harm cells, tissues, and organs, and they are believed to be one of the causes of the degenerative processes seen in aging. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

 Recommendations

The benefit of vitamin E supplementation in cancer, heart disease, dementia, liver disease, and stroke are still not known. It is likely that a protective effect will be found for coronary artery disease.

Recommended daily allowances (RDAs) are defined as the levels of intake of essential nutrients that, on the basis of scientific knowledge, the Food and Nutrition Board judges to be adequate to meet the known nutrient needs of practically all healthy persons.

The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.

Specific recommendations for each vitamin depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy). The U.S. Department of Agriculture offers a PDF file that lists these recommendations.

Food Sources

Vitamin E is found in the following foods:

• Wheat germ
• Corn
• Nuts
• Seeds
• Olives
• Spinach and other green leafy vegetables
• Asparagus
• Vegetable oils
• Corn oil
• Sunflower oil
• Soybean oil
• Cottonseed oil

Products made from these foods, such as margarine, also contain vitamin E.

Side Effects

There is no known dietary deficiency of vitamin E.

There are no known toxic effects to mega doses of vitamin E supplement. Occasional side effects such as headache have been reported.

http: //adam.about. com/encyclopedia /002406sid. htm

VITAMIN K

Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin. The "K" is derived from the German word "koagulation". Coagulation refers to blood clotting, because vitamin K is essential for the functioning of several proteins involved in blood clotting. There are two naturally occurring forms of vitamin K. Plants synthesize phylloquinone, also known as vitamin K₁. Bacteria synthesize a range of vitamin K forms, using repeating 5-carbon units in the side chain of the molecule. These forms of vitamin K are designated menaquinone-n (MK-n), where n stands for the number of 5-carbon units. MK-n are collectively referred to as vitamin K₂. MK-4 is not produced in significant amounts by bacteria, but appears to be synthesized by animals (including humans) from phylloquinone. MK-4 is found in a number of organs other than the liver at higher concentrations than phylloquinone. This fact, along with the existence of a unique pathway for its synthesis, suggests there is some unique function of MK-4 that is yet to be discovered.

Function

The only known biological role of vitamin K is that of the required coenzyme for a vitamin K-dependent carboxylase that catalyzes the carboxylation of the amino acid, glutamic acid, resulting in its conversion to gamma-carboxyglutamic acid (Gla). Although vitamin K-dependent gamma-carboxylation occurs only on specific glutamic acid residues in a small number of proteins, it is critical to the calcium-binding function of those proteins

Deficiency

Overt vitamin K deficiency results in impaired blood clotting, usually demonstrated by laboratory tests that measure clotting time. Symptoms include easy bruising and bleeding that may be manifested as nosebleeds, bleeding gums, blood in the urine, blood in the stool, tarry black stools, or extremely heavy menstrual bleeding. In infants, vitamin K deficiency may result in life-threatening bleeding within the skull (intracranial hemorrhage). Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Sources

Food sources

Phylloquinone (vitamin K₁) is the major dietary form of vitamin K. Green leafy vegetables and some vegetable oils (soybean, cottonseed, canola, and olive) are major contributors of dietary vitamin K. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils may decrease the absorption and biological effect of dietary vitamin K. If you wish to check foods you eat frequently for their nutrient content, including vitamin K.

 MINERALS:

Minerals are also one of the nutrients, which are required by the body in our daily life.

They are about sixteen types of minerals used by the body in our daily process, but the main ones are listed below.

1.    CALCIUM

What is it?

Calcium, the most abundant mineral in the human body, has several important functions. More than 99% of total body calcium is stored in the bones and teeth where it functions to support their structure. The remaining 1% is found throughout the body in blood, muscle, and the fluid between cells. Calcium is needed for muscle contraction, blood vessel contraction and expansion, the secretion of hormones and enzymes, and sending messages through the nervous system. A constant level of calcium is maintained in body fluid and tissues so that these vital body processes function efficiently. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Bone undergoes continuous remodeling, with constant resorption (breakdown of bone) and deposition of calcium into newly deposited bone (bone formation). The balance between bone resorption and deposition changes as people age. During childhood there is a higher amount of bone formation and less breakdown. In early and middle adulthood, these processes are relatively equal. In aging adults, particularly among postmenopausal women, bone breakdown exceeds its formation, resulting in bone loss, which increases the risk for osteoporosis (a disorder characterized by porous, weak bones).

What is the recommended intake for calcium?

Recommendations for calcium are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) developed by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academy of Sciences. Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) is the general term for a set of reference values used for planning and assessing nutrient intakes of healthy people. Three important types of reference values included in the DRIs are Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), Adequate Intakes (AI), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL). The RDA recommends the average daily intake that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97-98%) healthy individuals in each age and gender group. An AI is set when there is insufficient scientific data available to establish a RDA. AIs meet or exceed the amount needed to maintain a nutritional state of adequacy in nearly all members of a specific age and gender group. The UL, on the other hand, is the maximum daily intake unlikely to result in adverse effects

What foods provide calcium?

In the United States (U.S.), milk, yogurt and cheese are the major contributors of calcium in the typical diet. The inadequate intake of dairy foods may explain why some Americans are deficient in calcium since dairy foods are the major source of calcium in the diet. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Guide Pyramid recommends that individuals two years and older eat 2-3 servings of dairy products per day. A serving is equal to:

· 1 cup (8 fl oz) of milk

· 8 oz of yogurt

· 1.5 oz of natural cheese (such as Cheddar)

·  2.0 oz of processed cheese (such as American)

A variety of non-fat and reduced fat dairy products that contain the same amount of calcium as regular dairy products are available in the U.S. today for individuals concerned about saturated fat content from regular dairy products.

Although dairy products are the main source of calcium in the U.S. diet, other foods also contribute to overall calcium intake. Individuals with lactose intolerance (those who experience symptoms such as bloating and diarrhea because they cannot completely digest the milk sugar lactose) and those who are vegan (people who consume no animal products) tend to avoid or eliminate dairy products from their diets. Thus, it is important for these individuals to meet their calcium needs with alternative calcium sources if they choose to avoid or eliminate dairy products from their diet. Foods such as Chinese cabbage, kale and broccoli are other alternative calcium sources. Although most grains are not high in calcium (unless fortified), they do contribute calcium to the diet because they are consumed frequently. Additionally, there are several calcium-fortified food sources presently available, including fruit juices, fruit drinks, tofu and cereals. Figure 1 compares portion sizes of various foods that provide the amount of calcium in one cup of milk. This figure takes into account that calcium absorption varies among foods. Certain plant-based foods such as some vegetables contain substances, which can reduce calcium absorption. Thus, you may have to eat several servings of certain foods such as spinach to obtain the same amount of calcium in one cup of milk, which is not only calcium-rich but also contains calcium in an easily absorbable form. Table 2 contains additional listings of food sources of calcium.

Figure 1: Calcium Content of eight fl oz of Milk Compared to Other Food Sources of Calcium

Calcium's role in health and disease prevention

Calcium and bone health

Your bones are living tissues and continue to change throughout life. During childhood and adolescence, bones increase in size and mass. Bones continue to add more mass until around age 30, when peak bone mass is reached. Peak bone mass is the point when the maximum amount of bone is achieved. Because bone loss, like bone growth, is a gradual process, the stronger your bones are at age 30, the more your bone loss will be delayed as you age. Therefore, it is particularly important to consume adequate calcium and vitamin D supplement throughout infancy, childhood, and adolescence. It is also important to engage in weight-bearing exercise to maximize bone strength and bone density (amount of bone tissue in a certain volume of bone) to help prevent osteoporosis later in life. Weight bearing exercise is the type of exercise that causes your bones and muscles to work against gravity while they bear your weight. Resistance exercises such as weight training are also important because they help to improve muscle mass and bone strength.

Examples of weight bearing exercise

· walking

· Running

· dancing

· Aerobics

· skating

Examples of NON-weight bearing exercise

· Swimming

· bicycling

· Water aerobics
Osteoporosis is a disorder characterized by porous, fragile bones. It is a serious public health problem for more than 10 million Americans, 80% of whom are women. Another 34 million Americans have osteopenia, or low bone mass, which precedes osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a concern because of its association with fractures of the hip, vertebrae, wrist, pelvis, ribs, and other bones. Each year, Americans suffer from 1.5 million fractures because of osteoporosis.

When can a calcium deficiency occur?

Inadequate calcium intake, decreased calcium absorption, and increased calcium loss in urine can decrease total calcium in the body, with the potential of producing osteoporosis and the other consequences of chronically low calcium intake. If an individual does not consume enough dietary calcium or experiences rapid losses of calcium from the body, calcium is withdrawn from their bones in order to maintain calcium levels in the blood.

Signs of calcium deficiency

Because circulating blood calcium levels are tightly regulated in the bloodstream, hypocalcemia (low blood calcium) does not usually occur due to low calcium intake, but rather results from a medical problem or treatment such as renal failure, surgical removal of the stomach (which significantly decreases calcium absorption), and use of certain types of diuretics (which result in increased loss of calcium and fluid through urine). Simple dietary calcium deficiency produces no signs at all. Hypocalcemia can cause numbness and tingling in fingers, muscle cramps, convulsions, lethargy, poor appetite, and mental confusion. It can also result in abnormal heart rhythms and even death. Individuals with medical problems that result in hypocalcemia should be under a medical doctor's care and receive specific treatment aimed at normalizing calcium levels in the blood. [Please note that the symptoms described here may be due to a medical condition other than hypocalcemia.] It is important to consult a health professional if you experience any of these symptoms. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

http: //dietary-supplements .info. nih. gov/factsheets/ calcium. asp#h1

2.    IRON

Why do we need iron?

Iron has been considered an essential mineral for our bodies for over a century. Iron, a mineral, functions primarily as a carrier of oxygen in the body, both as a part of hemoglobin in the blood and of myoglobin in the muscles. It also aids in immune function, cognitive development, temperature regulation, energy metabolism, and work performance. About 90% of the iron in our body is conserved and reused every day; the rest is excreted. Men are able to naturally store more iron than women. In order to maintain iron balance in the body for both men and women, dietary iron must supply enough iron to meet the 10% gap that our body has excreted or else deficiency will result.

What is “a good food source”?

A good food source of iron contains a substantial amount of iron in relation to its calorie content and contributes at least 10% of the U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowance (U.S. RDA) for iron in a selected serving size. The U.S. RDA for iron is the amount of the mineral used as a standard in nutrition labeling of foods, which is 18 milligrams per day for iron. The current RDA for iron for postmenopausal women (ages 50+) and all men is 8 milligrams per day. The RDA for premenopausal women (ages 19 to 50) is 18 milligrams per day. The RDA for children (ages 4 to 8) is 10 milligrams per day. These recommendations are based upon the 2001 Dietary Recommended Intakes (DRI) for 22 sex-age categories set by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences.

According to the USDA’s Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply for 1909-1999, iron consumption levels increased from 13.7 milligrams per day in 1909-19 to 23.7 milligrams per day in 1990-1999. This increase is largely due to the fortification and increase in consumption of cereals, flours, breads, and enriched grains. Grains were the number one food source supply of iron in U.S. diets; meats, poultry, and seafood ranked second.

Where do we get iron?

Dietary sources of iron are found in two forms: heme iron and nonheme iron. Heme sources are provided by animal tissues (meats) and are readily absorbed. Approximately 40% of iron found in meat is heme, with the best sources being liver, seafood, fish, lean meat, and poultry.

Nonheme iron is provided from plant sources and elemental components of animal tissues. It is less efficiently absorbed, and its absorption amount depends upon the body’s needs (if there are low stores, more iron will be absorbed and vice versa). Nonheme sources that are high in iron include cooked spinach, beans, eggs, nuts, fortified breads, cereals, and flours.

The foods that supply the greatest amount of iron in the U.S. diet today include fortified cereals, bread, cakes, cookies, doughnuts, and pasta; beef; dried beans and lentils; and poultry. Foods that contain small amounts of iron (such as legumes and dried fruits), but are not considered good sources, can contribute significant amounts of iron to an individual’s diet if these foods are eaten often or in large amounts.

What about enriched or fortified foods?

Pasta, white rice, and most breads made from refined flours are enriched with iron, because iron is one of the nutrients lost in processing. Other nutrients added to refined flours and pasta includes thiamin, niacin, and riboflavin. Enriched products or products made from enriched flour are labeled as such. Minimum and maximum enrichment levels are specified for thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin, but only a minimum level of iron is required in farina. Thus, iron enrichment levels for farina vary from brand to brand.

Most ready-to-eat and instant-prepared cereals are fortified with iron. Fortified, ready-to-eat cereals usually contain at least 25 to 30% of the U.S. RDA for iron. Since cereals vary, check the label on the package for the percentage of the U.S. RDA for a specific cereal.

Do we get enough iron?

According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III, intakes for men generally exceed the RDA, whereas most women consume lower than the RDA. A key point to remember is that the RDA for premenopausal women is 10 milligrams higher than the RDA for men, thus making it more challenging for women in this age group to consume an adequate amount of iron. The ability of the body to absorb and utilize iron from different foods varies. The iron in meat, poultry, and fish is absorbed and utilized more readily than iron in other foods. The presence of these animal products in a meal increases the availability of iron from other foods. The body increases or decreases iron absorption according to need. The body absorbs iron more efficiently when iron stores are low and during growth spurts or pregnancy. The presence of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in a meal also increases iron absorption. Tea, coffee, or red wine; or an excess of zinc, manganese, or calcium can decrease iron absorption.

The most common indication of an iron deficiency is iron deficiency anemia, a condition in which the size and number of red blood cells are reduced. This condition may result from inadequate intake of iron or from blood loss. Anemia results in decreased oxygen in the blood, and can cause tiredness, headaches, irritability, and or depression. Anemia can also be caused by heavy blood loss through heavy menses, ulcers, hemorrhoids, and colon cancer.  Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Toxicity can occur if too much iron is absorbed. The major cause of this is most often hemochromatosis, a hereditary condition. This is a rare condition and is caused by a distinct gene that favors excessive iron absorption if it is readily available in the diet. Saturation of iron in the tissues can lead to tissue damage, specifically damage to the liver and heart.

How can we get enough iron?

Eating a variety of foods that contain iron is the best way to get an adequate amount. Healthy individuals who eat a balanced diet rarely need supplements. Many doctors recommend feeding a fortified milk formula or breakfast cereal, or giving an iron supplement to infants and toddlers, because it is especially difficult to meet their iron needs. Doctors usually prescribe iron supplements for pregnant or lactating women. For vegetarians or vegans, it is important to consume sufficient amounts of moderately-rich iron foods, such as beans, legumes, and fortified breads, cereals, and flours. Soy products are typically good sources of iron as well. The list of foods in the table in this fact sheet will help you select those that are good sources of iron as you follow the Dietary Guidelines. The list of good sources was derived from the same nutritive value of foods tables used to analyze information for recent food consumption surveys of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Human Nutrition Information Service.

How to prepare foods to retain iron

Iron skillets used for cooking can add to the total iron intake of the food being cooked in them, especially when acidic foods are cooked (such as tomato sauce). However, iron can be lost using other cooking methods even under the best conditions. To retain iron:

• Cook foods in a minimal amount of water.
• Cook for the shortest possible time.

What is a serving?

The serving sizes used in the list of good sources are only estimates of the amounts of food you might eat. The amount of nutrient in a serving depends on the weight of the serving. For example, a cup of cooked spinach contains more iron than a cup serving of spinach served raw, because the cooked spinach weighs more. Therefore, the cooked spinach appears on the list, while the raw form does not. Raw spinach provides the nutrient—but just not enough in a one-cup serving to be considered a good source.

http: //ohioline.osu. edu/hyg-fact/ 5000/5559. html

3.    POTASIUM

Overview

Potassium is a mineral that helps the kidneys function normally. It also plays a key role in cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle contraction, making it an important nutrient for normal heart, digestive, and muscular function. A diet high in potassium from fruits, vegetables, and legumes is generally recommended for optimum heart health. 

Having too much potassium in the blood is called hyperkalemia and having too little in the blood is known as hypokalemia. Proper balance of potassium in the body depends on sodium. Therefore, excessive use of sodium may deplete the body's stores of potassium. Other conditions that can cause potassium deficiency include diarrhea, vomiting, excessive sweating, malnutrition, and use of diuretics. In addition, coffee and alcohol can increase the amount of potassium excreted in the urine. Adequate amounts of magnesium are also needed to maintain normal levels of potassium.

For most people, a healthy diet rich in vegetables and fruits provides all of the potassium needed. The elderly are at high risk for developing hyperkalemia due to decreased kidney function that often occurs as one ages. Older people should be careful when taking medication that may further affect potassium levels in the body, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) and ACE inhibitors (see section on Interactions for additional information). Taking potassium supplements, at any age, should only be done under the guidance of a healthcare provider. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Uses

Hypokalemia

The most important use of potassium is to treat the symptoms of hypokalemia, which include weakness, lack of energy, muscle cramps, stomach disturbances, an irregular heartbeat, and an abnormal EKG (electrocardiogram, a test that measures heart function). Treatment of this condition takes place under the guidance and direction of a physician.

Osteoporosis

High dietary intake of potassium from fruits and vegetables throughout one's life helps to preserve bone mass thereby preventing bone loss that can lead to osteoporosis.

High Blood Pressure

Some studies have linked low dietary potassium intake with high blood pressure. The Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure recommends adequate amounts of potassium in the diet, along with other measures such as dietary calcium and weight loss, to prevent the development of high blood pressure. Similarly, the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet emphasizes eating foods rich in fruits, vegetables, and low- or non-fat dairy products to provide high intake of potassium, as well as magnesium and calcium.

While appropriate and adequate dietary intake is necessary for preventing or improving blood pressure, potassium supplements are probably not. Some animal and early human studies did suggest that potassium supplements could help to lower blood pressure. More recent well-designed studies, however, suggest that potassium supplements do not improve blood pressure significantly. Use of potassium supplements for blood pressure, therefore, depends on the medications you are taking and the instructions of your doctor.

Stroke

In several population based studies evaluating very large groups of men and women over time, a diet rich in potassium was associated with a reduced risk of stroke. For the men, this seems to be particularly true among those with high blood pressure and/or those taking diuretics (blood pressure medications that help the kidneys eliminate sodium and water from the body). Potassium supplements, however, do not seem reduce the risk of stroke.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

Amongst other nutrient deficiencies, people with IBD (namely, ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease) often have low levels of potassium. Your doctor will determine if supplementation with potassium is necessary.

Asthma

Several studies have suggested that diets low in potassium are associated with poor lung function and even asthma in children compared to those who eat normal amounts of potassium. Enhancing dietary intake of potassium through foods such as fish, fruits, and vegetables may, therefore, prove to be of value for preventing or treating asthma.

Dietary Sources

The best dietary sources of potassium are fresh unprocessed foods, including meats, fish, vegetables (especially potatoes), fruits (especially avocados, dried apricots, and bananas), citrus juices (such as orange juice), dairy products, and whole grains. Most potassium needs can be met by eating a varied diet with adequate intake of milk, meats, cereals, vegetables, and fruits.

Available Forms

There are several potassium supplements on the market, including potassium acetate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, potassium chloride, and potassium gluconate.

Potassium can also be found in multivitamins.

How to Take It

Potassium supplements, other than the small amount included in a multivitamin, should only be taken under the specific guidance and instruction of a healthcare provider. This is particularly true for children.

The recommended daily intakes of dietary potassium are listed below:

Pediatric

• Infants birth to 6 months: 500 mg or 13 mEq
• Infants 7 months to 12 months: 700 mg or 18 mEq
• Children 1 year: 1000 mg or 26 mEq
• Children 2 to 5 years: 1400 mg or 36 mEq
• Children 6 to 9 years: 1600 mg or 41 mEq
• Children over 10 years: 2000 mg or 51 mEq

Adult

2000 mg or 51 Meq, including for pregnant and nursing women.

Precautions

Because of the potential for side effects and interactions with medications, dietary supplements should be taken only under the supervision of a knowledgeable healthcare provider. In the case of potassium, this is particularly important in the elderly.

Diarrhea and nausea are two common side effects from potassium supplements. Other potential adverse effects include muscle weakness, slowed heart rate, and abnormal heart rhythm. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Excessive amounts of the herb licorice (not licorice candy) and caffeine-containing herbs (such as cola nut, guarana, and possible green and black tea) can lead to loss of potassium.

Potassium must not be used by people with hyperkalemia

http: //www.umm. edu/ altmed/ConsSupplements/ Potassiumcs. html

4.    SODIUM

Definition

Sodium is an element that the body needs to function properly.

Alternative Names

Diet - sodium (salt)

Function

The body uses sodium to regulate blood pressure and blood volume. Sodium is also critical for the functioning of muscles and nerves.

Fast food

Food Sources

Sodium occurs naturally in most foods. The most common form of sodium is sodium chloride, which is table salt. Milk, beets, and celery also naturally contain sodium, as does drinking water, although the amount varies depending on the source.

Sodium is also added to various food products. Some of these added forms are monosodium glutamate, sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate. These are ingredients in condiments and seasonings such as Worcestershire sauce, soy sauce, onion salt, garlic salt, and bouillon cubes.

Processed meats, such as bacon, sausage, and ham, and canned soups and vegetables are all examples of foods that contain added sodium. Fast foods are generally very high in sodium.

Recommendations

Dietary sodium is measured in milligrams (mg). Table salt is 40% sodium; one teaspoon of table salt contains 2,300 mg of sodium.

The National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences recommends an approximate daily range of 1,100 to 3,300 mg of sodium for adults. For people with high blood pressure, hypertension experts are recommending no more than 2,300 mg of sodium a day. The average sodium intake in the United States is between 4,000 and 5,000 mg per day.

Patients with congestive heart failure, liver cirrhosis, and kidney disease may need to be on low-sodium diets as prescribed by their doctor.

Specific recommendations regarding sodium intake do not exist for infants, children, and adolescents. Eating habits and attitudes about food formed during childhood are likely to influence eating habits for life, and for this reason, moderate intake of sodium is suggested.

Side Effects:

For individuals who are sodium-sensitive, an increased intake of sodium may contribute to high blood pressure. Therefore, people with high blood pressure may be advised to reduce sodium intake; all patients with high blood pressure should discuss this issue with their doctor. Reducing sodium can also reduce the side effects from certain prescription medications.

In addition, sodium may lead to fluid retention in patients with congestive heart failure, cirrhosis, or kidney disease. These patients should be on strict sodium-restricted diets as prescribed by their doctor.

 http: //www. umm. edu/ency/article/002415sid. htm http://www.merck.com/

5.    ZINC

Tales of zinc

Zinc is an important and essential trace mineral that is needed by every cell of our body. Many of our body processes require this mineral, from the immune system to the enzymes the make our DNA and even our taste buds. Did you know for instance that the human body on average contains no more than 3 grams of zinc, but this tiny amount ensures the proper functioning of more than 300 enzymes?

So how does zinc work in our body?

Zinc is a component of numerous enzymes in our body. These include those involved in digestion and metabolism, DNA production, electron transport and energy production. The main way in which it is used in the body is as an essential component (known as a "cofactor") for the functioning of a large number. It is absorbed in the small intestine and the excess is excreted through the gut. Zinc is then stored in the liver, pancreas, kidney, bones and voluntary muscles.

Zinc and our immune system

Zinc is one of the essential factors for the proper functioning of the immune system and is a vital component of the body's natural defense against common illnesses like colds. It is believed that zinc boosts the production of an optimal number of T cells, thymus hormones, and white blood cells, which in turn help us to fend off any bacteria that try to invade our healthy lives.

By boosting the immune system, zinc may also protect against fungal infections and various infectious disorders, such as conjunctivitis and pneumonia. It also has anti-inflammatory properties. In a study of 118 relatively healthy but elderly nursing home residents in Italy, researchers found that those given 25 mg of zinc daily for three months developed stronger immune systems. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Skin and hair health

Zinc promotes the healing of skin wounds, eczema, rosacea, burns, and other irritations by repairing the skin's top layer in part by helping to process the essential fatty acids that encourage healing.

Zinc also has a role in controlling acne. In some studies, zinc has been linked to skin health because it enhances the immune system, reduces inflammation, and promotes healthy hormone levels. Acne may improve as a result. In one study, zinc when taken in conjunction with antibiotic solutions considerably increased the capacity of these medications to clear up the acne.

Zinc, along with other vitamins and minerals, promotes hair growth. It may even help slow the loss of hair and counter brittleness. Extra benefits are derived from combining zinc with copper, as this mineral is an essential ingredient in melanin, a natural pigment in hair.  Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

How is zinc related to sexual health?

Zinc's effect on sex hormones may make it valuable in treating infertility in both women and men. Zinc plays a positive role in female fertility by promoting proper cell division, a process critical to the earliest stages of conception and fetal development. Similarly, in male reproduction zinc is an essential trace mineral involved in every asp 26-May-2004 motility, and hormone metabolism. Zinc levels are usually found to be much lower in infertile men, and a zinc deficiency is usually associated with decrease testosterone levels and sperm counts.

Zinc ranks among the key nutrients for the health of the prostate gland in men. Some evidence indicates that it may not only reduce an enlarged prostate but actually relieve symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), a common but bothersome condition that can result in problems such as difficulty urinating and weak urine flow. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.

Where can we get zinc in our daily diet?

Zinc is found in a wide range of foods, the richest sources being shellfish such as oysters, animal proteins (meat, eggs & dairy produce), pulses, nuts (almonds, walnuts, pecans) and whole meal grains. Other good sources include roots (ginger, turnips, carrots and potatoes), garlic and pumpkin seeds. White flour is a poor source, both because the zinc is mainly found in the outer layers of the grain and because the fiber in grain contains phytates, which inhibit the absorption of minerals.

How much zinc do we need a day?

The amount of zinc required daily is 9.5 milligrams for a man and 7 milligrams for a woman - similar to the daily iron requirement, except in women of childbearing age where iron requirements are greater. High protein diets can interfere with absorption of zinc leading to a greater dietary requirement.

The recommended supplementation rate for zinc is 5-25 milligrams per day for adults; not more than 15 mg per day for children. If you are taking nutritional supplements a multi-mineral supplement is preferable. This is because high levels of supplementation with one mineral may interfere with absorption of another. For example, excess iron interferes with absorption of zinc and excess zinc, in its turn can interfere with absorption of copper. Taking more than 100 mg a day of zinc for extended periods of time could result in problems such as depressed immune function and imbalances in levels of copper. The use of high doses of zinc for longer than seven days at a time is not recommended.

What happens if we are short of Zinc?

Some symptoms of zinc deficiency include

• Frequent infections including diarrhea
• Slow wound healing
• Lack of appetite possibly due to impaired taste and smell, which can lead to anorexia
• Loss of senses of taste or smell
• Skin problems including acne and psoriasis
• Problems with hair and nails, including hair loss, dandruff and characteristic white spots on the finger nails
• Impotence
• Decrease in sexual drive
• Poor dark adaptation (night blindness)
• Psychiatric or behavioral problems, also sleep disturbance

Finally, although zinc is important to our health, we should not overlook the intake of other vitamins and minerals. It is very important to have a balanced diet and healthy lifestyle to obtain an optimal state of well-being.

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Conclusion- Recommendations

Vitamins and minerals are essential micronutrients needed for health and life. They are not miracle cures for aging, poor diet, lack of physical exercise, or lack of motivation to take responsibility for one's physical and emotional well being.

Extra vitamins will not treat anxiety, depression, lack of adequate rest, bad interpersonal relationships or unhappiness on the job.

Modern society is stressful in its own way as less and less of our day is center around meal time and food preparation than it has in the past. However, opportunities for excellent health have never been greater due to increased access to information about healthy habits and increased availability of healthy foods.

Most persons can do their part by eating well and exercising regularly. Certain at risk persons may require an additional supplement; however, it does not have to be expensive nor should it exceed recommended daily values. Again, vitamin and mineral supplement discount/online stores may be expensive or cheap --  weigh the benefits.